AFRICAN COLONIZATION
The Scramble for Africa
|
Scientific Advancements:
The Suez Canal linked the Mediterranean with the red sea. It shortened the trip from Europe to the Indian ocean. Division of Africa:
The Boer War: Dutch (Boers) and the british. More that 20 000 died. Belgian Congo: governed by Leopold II African resistance:
|
AFRICAN INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS
- Twentieth century in Africa was full of decolonization
- Declining legitimacy of empires and race as a bases for social and political life
- Started as imperial dissolution, end of empires
- nationalist ideology of major importance
2. "The only legitimate government is a self government"
Political independence; assured the vitality of their culture by overthrowing outside oppressors
3. Colonial rule lost credibility, in part do to fundamental contradictions.
Social Darwinism allowed colonialists to justify the exploitation and poverty, but it went against Christian values.
4.Conjecture: timing (After World War II)
Europe was weak, lacked superiority; U.S. and Soviet Union disliked colonialism; UN platform
5. Colonies part of global economics; colonial rule unnecessary for European benefit
Global illegitimacy of empires, and social change allowing for independence movements.
Led to many independence movements within the colonies in the twentieth century.
- "What group of people constituted the nation that deserved self rule and who should speak for it?"
|
French AfricaFrench different from British; wanted to incorporate colonies into France
Colony leaders wanted more freedom; not independence French government gave Africans the choice to either stay tied to France with new organization of colonies, or be independent.
|
Ghana
|
Fist to gain independence as a British colony
|
Problems didn't end with gaining independence. Colonialism still a cause for issue.
South Africa
Already gained superficial colonial Independence.
Afrikaners National Party (descendants) imposed apartheid: "apartness"; social and racial segregation; harsh laws
Afrikaners National Party (descendants) imposed apartheid: "apartness"; social and racial segregation; harsh laws
- restricted Blacks to living in poverty in homelands; limited movement and travel; long work commutes; 75% of the populations
POST COLONIAL AFRICA
- Challenges from being exploited and conquered; power legacies; global demands
- Challenge of building a modern economy, stable political structure/system, and insuring citizens human right all while interacting with global industrialized nations (have their own agendas)
- "Is political independence enough for a better lifestyle?"
- Experiments with freedoms
The End of Apartheid
|
After 27 years as a political prisoner, here is the beginning of Mandela's speech.
|
6. ANC leaders begin to impose violence; ANC is banned and political prisoners (like Mandela) are taken.
7. Student groups of Black Conscious movement cause Soweto protest over educational reforms; hundreds are killed.
8. International pressure to end apartheid with trade restrictions.
9. ANC legalized in 1990, prisoners released, homelands abolished, and new constitution negotiated
10. Mandela becomes the nation’s first black democratic president.
7. Student groups of Black Conscious movement cause Soweto protest over educational reforms; hundreds are killed.
8. International pressure to end apartheid with trade restrictions.
9. ANC legalized in 1990, prisoners released, homelands abolished, and new constitution negotiated
10. Mandela becomes the nation’s first black democratic president.
A BBC summary of Apartheid and its end.
President Obama's speech at Nelson Mandela's funeral, calling him the "Last Great Liberator of The Twentieth Century"
South Africa found and maintained democracy.
African nations didn't stay democratic; faced many challenges
- Economic Development Prioritized; poverty not inevitable, possible to provide material conditions for life for everyone (central to independence)
- Quest for economic developments represents global embrace of modernity; scientific outlook; material values etc.
- lack of economic success caused distrust in democratic governments; bad infrastructure; undermined support
- Political systems within regions changed in quick succession with experimentation
- military governments, one-party systems and authoritarian governments came into place.
- patronage system allowed dictatorships to exist
- When military governments didn't work, renewal of democracy came to be. Simultaneously...
- Ethnic wars happened as rival ethnic groups competed for control
- Biafra (Igbo) vs Nigeria, Somalia, Hutu vs Tutsi (Rwandan Genocides
African culture also experienced a revival
- New generation created a new African identity
- Parisian students founded the negritude movement: pro literacy movements rejecting European models
- Writers shifted to criticize on local scale
- Art, Music and dance thrived
- Afro-pop came to be.
NATIONALISM AND CONFLICT
Suez Canal
- The Suez Canal linked the Mediterranean with the Red Sea. The British were interested in the canal because it shortened the trip from Europe to the Indian ocean because there was no need for ships. When Egypt was unstable in 1882 the British occupied it to ensure the safety and access of the canal.
- Once in power Nasser refused to sign the Baghdad Pact which led the western countries to lose their partnership with Egypt
- Nasser signed an Arms deal with the Soviet union after the US refuses to sell Egypt weapons
- Because of this the US and Britain denied Nasser funding to make a dam on the Nile River
- In response to the denial of funding, he decided to nationalize, or take control of, the Suez Canal, which was owned by an international company controlled by Britain and France.
- In October 1956 Britain, France, and Israel launched a coordinated attack on Egypt. Israel invaded the Sinai Peninsula, and British and French troops occupied the Suez Canal Zone
- The United States did not support these actions, which created tensions with the Soviet Union.
- Nasser promoted Pan-Arabism or Arab unity hoping to unite the Arab world. He brought Egypt and Syria together in 1958 as the United Arab Republic, but Syria withdrew two years later
![Picture](/uploads/5/1/6/7/51671141/4996712.jpg?250)
Conflict in Iran
- 1941 Mohammad Reza Pahlavi became shah of Iran
- At this time British and Russian troops occupied parts of the country
- A British run company also controlled Iran's oil industry and kept most of the profits
- Iranian nationalists were determined to take control of the country’s oil resources, reduce the power of the shah, and establish a constitutional monarchy.
- Mohammad Mosaddeq, lead them
- 1951 the Iranian parliament named Mosaddeq the prime minister and voted to nationalize the Iranian oil industry
- Mosaddeq reduced the size of the army and forced officers loyal to the shah to leave.
- After returning to power, the shah began an ambitious program of reforms, including land reform and a campaign to increase literacy.
- Iran’s industry, education, and health care improved. Education and employment opportunities for women also improved.
- The shah continued to rule with an iron hand, however. He used his secret police to spy on, intimidate, and torture the opposition
Conflicts in the Middle East
Regional issues (oil reserves, growth of Islamism, neighborhood conflicts) have contributed to conflict within the Middle East
Arab-Israeli Conflict
Regional issues (oil reserves, growth of Islamism, neighborhood conflicts) have contributed to conflict within the Middle East
Arab-Israeli Conflict
- Began in 1948
- It became a war in 1967 and 1973
- There was a peace agreement made after 6 years; remains tension
- 1967: Egypt wanted UN removal of troops in Gaza
- Egypt move troops to block Israel’s route to the Red Sea; Israel launched a pre-emptive attack against Egypt, Syria, and Jordan
- Six- Day War: Israel won; took control of the Golan Heights, Gaza Strip, and land of the West Bank
- Yom Kippur War (1973): surprise attack by Egypt and Syria to regain land from Israel, on Jewish holy day
- Golda Meir was Israeli president who asked U.S. for assistance (got it)
- After weeks, ceasefire was agreed on both sides
- (1977) Anwar Sadat, Egyptian president, wanted peace with Israel (recognized existence)
- Him and Menachem Begin (Israeli prime minister) signed Camp David Accords; Egypt recognized Israel, Israel gives Egypt Sinai Peninsula
- Palestinian Arabs continue in struggle for nationhood
- Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) formed pledge to destroy Israel to get Palestinian state
- Israel invades Lebanon (1978 and 1982) to stop attacks
- Israel begins settling in West Bank and Gaza; tensions between people
- Israeli occupation of Palestinians led to intifada (rebellion)
- Israeli troops vs. Palestinian people (street violence)
- Continued until 1990s with Israeli military troops fighting
- Oslo Accords in 1993 between Yasser Arafat and Yitzhak Rabin (Israeli PM) to end violence
- Israel gradually gives over West Bank and Gaza
- Permanent agreement between PLO and Israel in 1998
- Extremists arise on both sides and ruin peace process
- 2nd intifada began in 2000
- 2004, Arafat died and succeeded by Mahmoud Abbas; New Israeli pm Ariel Sharon decided to withdraw from West Bank and Gaza, gave to Palestinians
- Hamas (now terrorists) gain control of Palestinian parliament (2006)
![Picture](/uploads/5/1/6/7/51671141/_6588569_orig.jpeg)
Iranian Revolution
- The shah was ousted with a revolution
- Mohammad Reza Pahlavi had close ties with westerners and industrialized Iran (a lot of foreign influence)
- 1978 Protests began with Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini: shia (religious) leader
- Shah fled in 1979, Revolution turn Iran into an Islamic Republic
- New regime suppressed political opposition; strict religious and social values
- Anti-western foreign policy; shah in U.S.
- 1979, Revolutionaries seize U.S. embassy in Tehran (66 U.S. hostages) for shah to stand trial (held until Jan 1981)
Conflict with Iraq
- Iraq and Iran went to war after Iraq attacked (Iran-Iraq War 1980) over border disputes and from Iran Gov. calling for revolution from Iraqi Shiite pop.
- 1988 ceasefire after stalemate
- Saddam Hussein continued to build Iraqi military (already largest among Arabs)
- Iraq accused Kuwait of drilling Iraqi oil; invaded Kuwait
- UN passes economic sanctions against Iraq; failed
- Coalition (U.S. led) launched Persian Gulf-War, freed Kuwait in weeks
- UN continues sanctions to force Iraq to give up chemical and biological weapons; agreement not to develop nuclear weapons
- Iraq failed inspections, didn’t cooperate
- Attacks on September 11 caused U.S. leaders to worry about Saddam Hussein possibly giving weapons to terrorists
- Iraq didn’t have weapons (passed inspections), didn’t cooperate still
- U.S. leaders think he hid them, worried
- U.S. leads coalition (2003) to invade Iraq, force Hussein out of power in Iraq War sux
- Wanted to bring order, peace thwarted by growing armed rebellion (inside and outside) with deadly insurgent attacks
- Coalition made democratic Iraq, political power transferred to Iraqis in 2004.
- 2005, Election happened and constitution implemented to make Iraq an Islamic Federal Democracy
- Continued uncertainty over future.